Contents Xi 
Methodological Strategies for 
Studying Territorial Behavior 
Empirical Studies of Human 
Territorial Behavior 128 
Summary of Chapters 7 and 8 
I, 
14. 
O 
Crowding: Meaning, 
Theory, and Methods ~~ 146 
The Nature and Meaning of Crowding 
Some Distinctions Between Crowding 
and Density 149 
A Model of Crowding 154 
Historical Stages of Research on Crowding 161 
10 
The Effects of 
Crowding and Density 
1A8 
A Brief Note on Studies of Crowding in 
Animals 168 
Psychological and Social Feeling States 
Overt Coping Behaviors in Reaction to 
Crowding 175 
Outcomes and Costs of Crowding 184 
Summary of Chapters 9 and 10 192 
1,0 
1 
Implications for 
Environmental Design 
fr 
3 
A Historical Perspective 194 
Differing Approaches of Practitioners and 
Researchers 197 
A “Models of Man” View of the Field 201 
Some Environmental-Design Guidelines 207 
References 221 
|r 
exes